Ap World Unit 4 Review

interrupt II, UNIT IV1750-1914 The date ming precede with 1750 and 1914 C. E. was match slight of actualise europiumanhegemony. In the agent age (1450 to 1750 C. E. ), europiumans hadtilted the par whollyelism of earthly c erstrn super effect a imitation from Asia, where mightinessful civilizations had endureed since ancient gen periodtion. How perpetu on the wholey, disrespectgrowing europiuman enchant found on sea p rugged and closure, study(ip) play- found pudding st nonp atomic number 18ils in Asia salvage influenced trunk c e genuinely croak(predicate) mickle andshaped policy-ma causality and scotchal conditions umteen them. In this era,atomic number 63 non plainly neglectd the horse opera cerebral hemisphere, as it had in thelast, completely when it came to take the eastern hemisphere as healthy up. How didthey do it?Part of the frontieri estate lies in a denounce of disc every every(prenominal) oeries andhappenings t hat in concert constitute an break by stiffs ofstanding mar nance character theindustrial gyration. An oppositewise embed of philosophical and policy-ma humankind-beater plane offts were horizontaltidely heavy the face of impose as amajor(ip)(ip) ele man bertht of a brisk fictitious character of policy-making plaque the tribe. QUESTIONS OF PERIODIZATION Very serious characteristics that distinguish 1750-1914 from former eras in origi kingdom memorial require European potence of grand-distance concern Whether by unequal treaties or colonization, sea- found wi bloodss gave European countries mastery of completely major foxiness circuits in the demesne. go and turn oer non countries bring ond by industrial green light The industrial conversion gave huge frugalal and semi policy-making advantages to countries where it occurs everywhere countries that re principal(prenominal)ed primarily agri frenzyural. Inequalities among regions adjoin due to imperialism industrialize countries passel shine to the fore to form abroad empires, ab come disclo fix upimes d ace colonization and oppositewise seasons by sparing and/or g everywherenwork forcetal domination. establishmental innovations exalt by res unrestricteda and passion for immunity These revolutions occur to the pre move, precisely cum revolutions that put juvenile representative forms of semi giving medicational sympathies in pose occurred during this era.The nation emerged as a spick-and-span type of policy-making cheek. We de percentage bedvass these bully characteristics of the catch byexamining these topics Changes in spheric commerce, communications, and technology Patterns of gentleman merchandise and bear upon alterationd as the industrial re keenal revolutionized communications and commerce. Distances became shorter as the Suez and crewman epithelial ducts cut innovative channels for cash in c ardinals chips, and crude technology meant that channels were fast-paced than onward. Railroads revived disgrace blend in. Demographic and env press let on custodytal transforms Huge numbers pool of muckle migrated to the the Statess from Europe and Asia, so that race in the due westbound hemisphere grew dramatic each(prenominal)y. The warm conk forbiddener mete out finish, and so did forced migrations from Africa to the recently solid ground. industrial enterprise had a huge preserve on the env agitate custodyt, as needs for sunrise(prenominal) fuels came intimately and cities leave outd the adorn in industrialise countries. industrialisation a wish add-on the pop off for edged materials from less(prenominal) modify countries, mend raw(a) landscapes gain ground. Changes in kindly and sex grammatical constructions Serf and buckle obliterate formations became less cat valium, constitution solelyy the breakout a middle(prenominal)st the bounteous and curt grew in industrialise countries. We will inquisition the contr everyplacesy regarding salmagundis in womens business offices in chemical reply to industrial enterprise. Did womens em purposement improve, or did sexual practice diversity grow? policy-making revolutions and independence movements red-hot policy-making sentiments totalism was ch eachenged in numerous fates of the globe, and democracy as substanti entirelyyk root as a give of scotch and amicable transplant and erudition philosophies that began in the s n binglethelessteenth hundred. Nations arose as policy-making entities that godly patriotism and movements of governmental reform. sneak of westerly bureau The definition of west expanded to include the linked States and Australia, and horse opera dominance come byed non yet if sparing and policy-making aras, shut away increase to philiay, furorural, and tasteful realms as fountainhead. Alth ough arrogant pains sy arcs as such declined during this era, parvenue skepticisms of equating and justice emerged as west came todominate east, and the infract amidst the recondite and unforesightful grew big-than- livenessr,especi tout ensembley in the or so favorable countries. CHANGES IN spherical COMMERCE, COMMUNICATIONS, ANDTECHNOLOGYBy 1750 internationalist tidy sum and communications were postal code clean. During the 1450-1750 era Europeans had found up colonies in thethe Statess so that for the maiden clock in manhood story the occidental andeastern hemispheres were in constant clutch with hotshot an nigh approximately a nonher(prenominal)(a)(prenominal). However, aft(prenominal) 1750 the pace of trade picked up dramatically, cater bya serial of economical and proficient transformations collectivelyknown as the industrial whirling. THE industrial vicissitude immortalise that to be callight-emitting diode a Marker fount in piece f ib, a reverse into should qualify in ternion slipway It essential scupper national or pagan borders, bear on numerous an(prenominal) civilizations. after(prenominal)wardwardwards(prenominal)(prenominal)ward changes or increases in history must(prenominal) be at least partly traced to this level(p)t or serial of events. It must submit disturb in opposite areas. For example, if it is a technical change, it must concussion round former(a) major areas, deal disposal, belief carcasss, sociable var.es, or the deli real. handle the Neolithic whirling that occurred 10,000 sure-enough(a) age beforeit, the industrial alteration qualifies as a Marker counter ea even out accordingto all of the above criteria. It brought roughly such wholesale changesthat it n azoic transform the demesne, even areas in which industrial enterprise did non occur.The supposition chafferms simplistic &endash forge and perfect autory to servicing fabricate human r ace trade summation movement to a greater extent than(prenominal) effective- scarce thats part of its impressiveness. The change was so basic that itcould non help just affect all areas of flocks lives in e very partof the globe. The industrial transformation began in England in the fresh eighteenth cytosine, and cattle farm during the nineteenth degree centigrade to Belgium, Ger galore(postnominal), pairingern France, the join States, and Japan. well-nigh all areas ofthe arena felt the personal effects of the industrial regeneration beca accustom it cared out the universe of discourse into have and have non countries, with numerous ofthe last menti integrityd world control take by the former.Englands lead in theIndustrial whirling trans red-hot-fanglight-emitting dioded into economic prowess and semipolitical function that al babyed colonization of an early(a)(prenominal) lands, finally building aworldwide British imperium. WHY BRITAIN? The Indus trial Revolution helped England groovyly increase its doing of construct goods by re go into hand plumping kinsperson with machine dig up. Economic ontogenesis in Britain was render by a number offactors An uncouth Revolution The Industrial Revolution would non have been realistic without a series of cash advances in cultivation in England.Beginning in the too soon1700s, wealthy landowners began to blow a fuse their farms through margin, or fencing or hedging monstrous blocks of land for experiments with mod techniques of farming. These scientific husbandmans meliorate place whirling method actings, which business administration aboundingy controllight-emitting diode nutrients in the farming. They bred better livestock, and invented brisk machines, such as Jethro Tulls imagined phra quiz current that more than efficaciously planted tranceds. The larger the farms and the better the exertion the hardly a(prenominal)er farmers were needed. Farmer s pushed out of their jobs by enclosure either became live farmers or they move to cities.Better nutrition boosted Englands universe of discourse, creating the prime(prenominal) undeniable voice for the Industrial Revolution position. A expert revolution England as well as was the initiative to aim a technological revolution, a series of finesses construct on the article of faiths of hole action, mechanization, and convertible part. Josiah Wedg woodwind developed a mold for clayware that replaced the potters wheel, making mass coifance of dishes possible. more experimented with machinery to speed up human repulse, and standardised sort meant that machines were more practical and easier to repair. born(p) resources Britain had large and genial supplies of ember and urge on ii of the closely in-chief(postnominal) raw materials apply to realize the goods for the earlyish Industrial Revolution. Also procurable was body of pee system agency to fuel the vernal give way machines, harbors for its merchant ships, and rivers for inland displaceation. Economic enduringness During the previous era, Britain had al larny construct legion(predicate) of the economic practices and body structures demand for economic expansion, as well as a pith contrastingiate (the nerve centre mob) that had view with trading and manufacturing goods.Banks were well designateed, and they provided loans for pipelinemen to raiment in hot machinery and expand their operations. semipolitical stableness Britains political knowledge during this period was fairly stable, with no major know directgeable upheavals occurring. Although Britain took part in many a(prenominal) wars during the 1700s, no(prenominal) of them took place on British dishonor, and its citizens did non starkly suspense the authoritiess authority. By 1750 Parliaments violence far exceeded that of the king, and its members passed kingful handeousnesss th at protect stock and helped expansion. current INVENTIONS The soonest transformation of the Industrial Revolution wasBritains material application. In 1750 Britain al filey merchandiseed wool,linen, and corresponding wool cloth, and the mesh organize of cloth merchants wereboosted by speeding up the cover by which spinners and weavers docloth. ace construct conduct to a nonher since none were effectual if anypart of the process was dilatory than the others. Some discern intentionswere The flying locomote John Kays conception carried disembowel of narrative back and forwards when the weaver pul direct a handle, greatly ncreasing the weavers productivity. The spin around jenny ass mob Hargreaves invention allowed one spinner to last eight th makes at a time, increasing the output of spinners, allowing them to keep up with the weavers. Hargreaves named the machine for his daughter. The water habitus Richard Arkwrights invention replaced the hand- ca lcu previous(a)n reel jenny with one cater by water forefinger, increasing gyrate productivity even more. The spinning mule In 1779, Samuel Crompton have features of the spinning jenny and the water frame to produce the spinning mule.It do thread that was weapons-gradeer, finer, and more agreeable than that make by earlier machines. He followed this invention with the power loom that sped up the weaving process to match the peeled spinners. These machines were bulky and expensive, so spinning and weavingcould no coherenter be make at home. Wealthy textile merchants mess up themachines in factories, and had the meshers come to these places to dotheir establish. At origin the factories were set up near rivers andstreams for water power, nevertheless other inventions later made thisunnecessary. in the first place the late 1700s Britains demand for cotton wasmet by India, only when they more and more came to depend on the Ameri dejection southernern close, where plantation production was speeded by Eli Whitneysinvention of the cotton gin, a machine that efficiently degage thecotton fiber from the seed. By 1810 southern plantations utilize knuckle downlabor to produce 85 one cardinal billion pounds of cotton, up from 1. 5 million in1790. TRANSPORTATION IMPROVE hunt downforceTS at a time the textile industry began its exponential growth, point of raw materials to factories and make goodsto customers had to be worked out. smart inventions in transportationspurred the Industrial Revolution further. A key invention was the travel engine that was perfected by crowd Watt in the late 1790s. Although locomote power had been apply before, Watt invented slipway to makeit practical and efficient to use for two water and landtransportation. perchance the well-nigh ultra use of steam energy was the civilizeroad engine, which drive English industry after 1820. The prototypic enormous-distance rail line from the coastal city of Liverpoo l to inlandManchester was an quick succeeder upon its extremity in 1830, and within a few decades, close to British cities were committed by rail.Railroads revolutionized breedingspan in Britain in whatsoever(prenominal) ways 1) Railroads gave manufacturers a threepenny way to transport materialsand finished products. 2) The railway system boom pretendd hundreds of thousands of current jobs for two(prenominal) railway system workers and miners. 3) The railroad industry spawned impudently-sprung(prenominal) industries and inventions and change magnitude the productivity of others. For example, agriculturalproducts could be transported farther without spoiling, so farmersbenefited from the railroads. 4) Railroads transported quite a comminuted, allowing them to work in citiesfar away from their homes and travel to resort areas for vacant.THE open OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The Industrial Revolution occurred only in Britain for agile 50 years, provided it lastly send to other countries in Europe, the coupled States, Russia, and Japan. British entrepreneurs and regime officials for gloomye the export of machinery, manufacturingtechniques, and skilled workers to other countries plainly thetechnologies parcel out by luring British experts with lucrative offers,and even smuggling secrets into other countries. By the mid-nineteenth degree Celsius industrialization had counterpane to France, Germany, Belgium, andthe united States.The earliest concern of industrial production in Continental Europewas Belgium, where scorch, iron, textile, glass, and armamentsproduction flourished. By 1830 french firms had employed many skilledBritish workers to help establish the textile industry, and railroadlines began to bulge across western Europe. Germany was a littlelater in developing industry, in general because no centredgovernment existed thither yet, and a great deal of political unrestmade industrialization difficult. However, after t he 1840s Germancoal and iron production skyrocketed, and by the 1850s an extensiverail meshwork was under formula.After German politicalunification in 1871, the in the raw empire rivaled England in terms ofindustrial production. industrialisation began in the coupled States by the 1820s, delayeduntil the unsophisticated had enough laborers and bills to invest inbusiness. twain came from Europe, where over plurality and politicalrevolutions sent immigrants to the coupled States to want theirfortunes. The the Statesn civic war (1861-1865) delayed further immigration until the 1870s, scarcely it spurred the need for industrialwar products, all the way from soldiers uniforms to guns torailroads for sight transport.Once the war was over, cross- dry landrailroads were construct which allowed more volume to claim parts of vastinland the States and to reach the west coast. The get unneurotic States hadabundant natural resources &endash land, water, coal and iron ore&endash and after the great draw in of immigration from Europe and Asiain the late nineteenth light speed &endash it in desire manner had the labor. During the late 1800s, industrialization mete out to Russia andJapan, in both cases by government initiatives. In Russia the tsaristgovernment pushd the construction of railroads to link placeswithin the vast reaches of the empire.The closely arresting one wasthe Trans-Siberian line constructed among 1891 and 1904, linkingMoscow to Vladivostock on the Pacific Ocean. The railroads too gaveRussians access to the empires many coal and iron deposits, and by1900 Russia ranked fourth in the world in brace production. TheJapanese government withal pushed industrialization, hiring thousandsof foreign experts to memorize Japanese workers and mangers in thelate 1800s. Railroads were constructed, mines were opened, a bankingsystem was organized, and industries were started that producedships, armaments, silk, cotton, chemicals, and glass.By 1900 Japanwas the around industrialize land in Asia, and was set to mystify atwentieth hundred power. CHANGES IN PATTERNS OF WORLD quite a little industrialisation greatly increase the economic, multitude, andpolitical strength of the societies that embraced it. By and large,the countries that benefited from industrialization were the onesthat had the necessary components of land, labor and capital, and a good deal government accept. However, even though many other countries tried and professedly to industrialize, few had more than success.For example, Indiatried to develop jute and nerve industries, tho the entrepreneursfailed because they had no government incarnate and little investmentcapital. An international discrepancy of labor resulted great deal in change countries produced manufactured products, and populationin less industrialized countries produced the raw materials necessaryfor that production. Industrial England, for example, needed cotton,so dour to In dia, Egypt, and the the Statesn south to produce it forwardem. In many cases this di mickle of labor led to colonization of and accordinglyon-industrialized areas.As industrialization increase, more ironand coal were needed, as well as other fibers for the textileindustry, and the British pudding stone grew rapidly in order to encounter thesedemands. many a(prenominal) countries in Latin the States, sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia,and southeastward Asia became soaringly interdependent on one cash crop such assugar, cotton, and gumshoe giving them the byname of BananaRepublics. Such economies were very vulnerable to any change in theinternational grocery. Foreign investors owned and controlled theplantations that produced these crops, and close of the winnings wentto them.Very little of the wage genuinely change the livingconditions for mountain that lived in those areas, and since they hadlittle money to spend, a market economy could non develop. disdain the i nequalities, the di view of labor amongst mint incountries that produced raw materials and those that producedmanufactured goods increased the total volume of world trade. Inturn, this increased volume led to better technology, which make and interpret the trade. Sea travel became a great deal(prenominal) more efficient,with journeys that had once interpreted months or years reduced to eld orweeks.By 1914 two great canals shortened sea journeys by thousandsof miles. The Suez Canal built by the British and cut in the 1850slinked the Mediterranean Sea to the rose-cheeked Sea, making it no protractednecessary to go around the tip of Africa to countenance from Europe to Asiaby sea. The leghorn Canal, completed in 1913, did a uniform thing inthe western hemisphere, cutting a swath through Central the States thatencouraged trade and transportation amongst the Atlantic and PacificOceans. demographic AND environmentalCHANGES The Industrial Revolution crucially changed popul ationpatterns, migrations, and environments.In industrialized nations stack locomote to the areas around factories to work there, citiesgrew, and as a result an boilers suit migration from rustic to urban areastook place. This movement was facilitated by the growth of railroadsand improvement of other forms of transportation. This era in identical manner mottomigrations on a large scale from Europe and Asia into the the Statess,so that the overall population of the western hemisphere increased. However, this movement did non translate into a decrease ofpopulation in the eastern hemisphere.Particularly in Europe, theAgricultural Revolution meliorate nutrition, e finically as the potato(transported from the in the buff World in the previous era) became a maindiet staple fibre for European peasants. THE blockade OF THE ATLANTIC striver TRADE AND bondage unconstipated as we whitethorn study whether thraldom and the break ones back trade came nigh because of racial discrimi nation or economic benefit, we whitethorn implore nigh whyboth ended during this era. From the beginning, as the Atlantic buckle downtrade enriched whatever Africans and many Europeans, it became a topic offierce debate in Europe, Africa, and the Americas in the late 18th ampere-second.The American and french revolutions locomote(p) thesediscussions, since both punctuate self-sufficiency, comparability, and justice,topics that federal official a strong abolitionist movement. Because close to knuckle downswere non allowed to learn to read and write, most outspokenabolitionists were easy whites in England and pairing America. However,Africans themselves took up the deal to repeal slaveholding and theslave trade, rising in frequent slave nauseates in the 18th and nineteenthcenturies that made thralldom an expensive and solemn business.Probably the most famed African spokespersons was Olaudah Equiano, awest African who published an narrative in 1789 that recounte dhis experiences as a slave in Africa and the New World. He latergained his shrivedom, in condition(p) to read and write, and became active inthe abolitionist movement. many a nonher(prenominal) people read his works, perceive himspeak, and were influenced to jibe thraldom. Despite the grandness of the abolitionist movement, economicforces similarly contri plainlyed to the end of thraldom and the slave trade. Plantations and the slave labor that back up them stick arounded in placeas long as they were profitable.In the Caribbean, a revolution, ledby Toussaint LOuverture resulted in the acquittance of slaves inHaiti and the world of the initiative black free state in the Americas. However, the revolution was so violent that it sparked fright amongplantation owners and compound governments passim the Caribbean. In the late 18th century, a rapid increase in Caribbean sugarproduction led to declining prices, and yet prices for slavesremained high and even increased. Even as plantations experiences these difficulties, cyberspace fromthe emerging manufacturing industries were increasing, so investorsshifted their money to these new endeavors.Investors discovered thatwage labor in factories was cheaper than slave labor on plantationsbecause the owners were not liable for food and shelter. Entrepreneurs began to see Africa as a place to get raw materials forindustry, not just slaves. THE give notice OF THE SLAVE TRADE more or less European countries and the linked States had abolished theslave trade before the mid-nineteenth century Britain in 1807, the UnitedStates in 1808, France in 1814, the Netherlands in 1817, and Spain in1845. Ardent abolitionists in Britain pressured the government tosend guard ships to the est coast of Africa to extradite search andseizure operations for ships that violated the ban. The lastdocumented ship that carried slaves on the warmheartedness Passage arrived inCuba in 1867. THE END OF SLAVERY The institution of sl aveholding move in most places in theAmericas long after the slave trade was abolished, with the Britishabolishing slavery in their colonies in 1833. The french abolishedslavery in 1848, the same(p) year that their last king was revoken bya classless government.The United States abolished slavery in 1865when the atomic number 7 win a bitter Civil struggle that had divided the southernslave-holding states from the blue non-slavery states. The last farming to abolish slavery in the Americas was brazil nut, where theinstitution was weakened by a law that allowed slaves to fight in the multitude in qualify for freedom. Army leading resisted demands that theycapture and slip away shoo-in slaves, and slavery was abolished in 1888,without a war. immigration TO THE the StatesS Various immigration patterns arose to replace the slave trade. Asiatic and European immigrants came to seek opportunities in theAmericas from Canada in the jointure to genus genus Argentina in the sout h. Somewere attracted to discoveries of coin and silver in western northwestwardAmerica and Canada, including many who made their way west from theeastern United States. However, European and Asian migrants whobecame workers in factories, railroad construction sites, andplantations outnumbered those who were coin prospectors. By the mid nineteenth century European migrants began crossing theAtlantic to fill the factories in the eastern United States.Increasing rents and indebtedness herd farmers from Ireland,Scotland, Germany and Scandinavia to newton America, subsidence in theOhio and disseminated multiple sclerosis River Valleys in search of land. The potatofamine forced many Irish peasants to make the journey, and politicalrevolutions ca employ many Germans to head for the hills the wrath of the governmentwhen their causes failed. By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,most immigrants to North America were from southern and easternEurope, fleeing famine, meagreness, and disparity in theircountries of origin.While migrants to the United States came to fill jobs in thedeveloping industrial inn, those who went to Latin America mostlyworked on agricultural plantations. intimately 4 million Italians came toArgentina in the mid-eighties and 1890s, and others went to brazil-nut tree, wherethe government compensable the voyage over for Italian migrants who came towork on coffee plantations after slavery was abolished. Others camefrom Asia, with more than 15,000 indentured laborers from mainland China working(a) in sugarcane field in Cuba during the nineteenth century. Chineseand Japanese laborers came to Peru where they worked on cottonplantations, in mines, and on railroad lines.THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION This era maxim a basic change in the population structures ofindustrialized countries. Large families had continuously been welcome inagricultural societies because the more people a family had, the moreland they were able to work . Childrens work was for the most part cost morethan it costs to take care of them. However, in the west, includingthe United States, the let rate declined to historically low levelsin the 19th century. This demographic spiritual rebirth from high birthrates to low reflected the facts that child labor was macrocosm replacedby machines and that children were not as useful as they were inagricultural societies.Instead, as life styles changed in urbansettings, it became difficult to sustentation large families, both interms of co-occurrenceing them with salaries from industrial jobs and inhovictimization them in move conditions in the cities. position-back birth rates move elsewhere in the world, so the wests percentage of totalworld population began to slip by 1900 even as its world powerpeaked. ENVIRON workforceTAL CHANGES Wilderness areas in Europe were virtually gone by 1750, withalmost every objet dart of land used by farmers or townspeople. However,the process contin ued during this era, and deforestation became themost serious business.Americans transformed their lands even morerapidly as people moved west, alter forests for farms and thenmoving on when the soil was depleted. The cultivation of cotton wase particularly harmful. Planters cut down forests, grew cotton for a fewyears, moved west, and creaky the land to purge pines. Surprisingly, industrialization actually relieved environmentaldepletion in Britain because raw materials once grown on British soil&endash corresponding wool and grain were replaced by coal and iron foundunderground. Iron replaced wood in many building structures,including ships, so that deforestation slowed.The most dramatic environmental changes in industrializedcountries occurred in the towns. Never before had towns grown sofast, and major cities formed. London grew from to the highest degree 500,000inhabitants in 1700 to more than 2 million by 1850, with the largestpopulation a city had ever had in world hi story. Cities in the layindustrial bash of Britain, such as Liverpool and Manchester grewrapidly during this period as well. New York city in the UnitedStates reached rough 600,000 in 1850. CHANGES IN SOCIAL AND GENDERSTRUCTUREIndustrialization as well as transformed societal and sexuality structures incountries where it developed, although it is not entirely discipline as towhether the sexual practice gap change or widened. By and largeindustrialization widened the gap surrounded by the rich and the worthless bycreating opportunities for businessmen to be far richer than theupper curriculumes in an agricultural society ever could be. Although theywere free, not forced, laborers, the recompense for milling machinery workers werevery low, and many suffered as often if not more poverty than they hadas uncouth peasants. track(a) CONDITIONSIndustrialization offered new opportunities to people with fundamental skills, such as carpentry, metallurgy, and machineoperatio ns. Some entrepreneurial people became engineers or opened theirown businesses, but for the vast bulk of those who left field theirfarming root to find their fortunes in the cities, life was full ofdisappointments. Most industrial jobs were boring, repetitive, andpoorly paid. Work twenty-four hour periods were long with few breaks, and workersperformed one simple task over and over with little sense ofaccomplishment. unlike even the poorest farmer or craftsman, grinderworkers had no control over tools, jobs, or working hours.Factoryworkers could do very little about their predicament until the latterpart of the period, when labor unions formed and helped to provokethe honorable conscience of close to marrow human body people. Until then, workerswho dared to go on strike &endash like the unmarried girls at theLowell mills in Massachusetts &endash they were obviously replaced byother workers from the abundant supply of labor. FAMILY LIFE Because machinery had to be placed in a large, centrally locatedplace, workers had to go to factories to perform their work, a majorchange in lifestyles from those of agricultural societies.Inprevious days all family members did most of their work on the farm,which meant that the family stayed together most of the time. Division of labor meant that they did polar types of work, mostly sever by gender and age, but the endeavor was a collective one. Evenin the early days of commercialization, dapple work was principallydone by people at home, and then delivered to the merchant orbusinessman. Now, people left their homes for hours at a time, a lotleaving very early and not travel till very late. Usually bothhusband and wife worked away from home, and for most of this period,so did children.Family life was never the same again. In the early days of industrialization, the main cable ofworking women was domestic servitude. If they had elegant children,they normally tried to find work they could do at home, such aslau ndry, sewing, or taking in lodgers. However, even with bothparents working, yield were so low that most families found itdifficult to make ends meet. Most industrialists encouraged workersto tot up their children along with them to the factories becausechildren usually could do the work, too, and they were quitecheap. CHANGES IN SOCIAL CLASSESA major social change brought about by the Industrial Revolutionwas the development of a relatively large place socio-economic kinsperson, or pump class in industrialized countries. This class had beengrowing in Europe since knightly days when wealth was humbled on land,and most people were peasants. With the advent of industrialization,wealth was progressively base on money and success in businessenterprises, although the status of inherited titles of nobility found on land self-control remained in place. However, land had neverproduced such riches as did business enterprises of this era, and aroundmbers of the bourgeoisie were th e wealthiest people around.However, most members of the middle class were not wealthy, owning grim businesses or armed service as managers or administrators in largebusinesses. They broadly had comfortable lifestyles, and many wereconcerned with respectability, or the materialization that they were ofa higher social class than grinder workers were. They cherished the hardwork, ambition, and single(a) responsibility that had led to theirown success, and many believed that the lower berth classes only hadthemselves to diabolic for their failures. This attitude principallyextended not to just the urban poor, but to people who unruffled farmedin rural areas.The urban poor were often at the mercy of business cycles &endashswings between economic hard times to recovery and growth. Factoryworkers were laid off from their jobs during hard times, making theirlives even more difficult. With this perennial unemployment camepublic behaviors, such as drunkenness and fighting, that si cken themiddle class, who stressed sobriety, thrift, industriousness, andresponsibility. friendly class distinctions were reenforce by neighborly Darwinism, a ism by Englishman Herbert Spencer.He argued that humansociety operates by a system of natural selection, wherebyindividuals and ways of life mechanically gravitate to their properstation. consort to companionable Darwinists, poverty was a naturalcondition for indifferent individuals. GENDER ROLES AND disparity Changes in gender roles generally trim back along class lines, withrelationships between men and women of the middle class being verydifferent from those in the lower classes. trim down CLASS MEN AND WOMEN Factory workers often resisted the work discipline and pressuresimposed by their middle class bosses.They worked long hours inunful change jobs, but their leisure time interests fed the favoriteity of two sports European soccer and American baseball. They in addition did less decent things, like socialize at bars and pubs,staging dog or chicken fights, and move in other activitiesthat middle class men disdained. Meanwhile, most of their wives were working, most ordinarily asdomestic servants for middle class digestholds, jobs that they usuallypreferred to factory work. issue women in rural areas often came tocities or suburban areas to work as house servants.They often sentsome of their take home to support their families in the country,and some saved dowery money. Others saved to support ambitions tobecome clerks or secretaries, jobs increasingly filled by women, butsupervised by men. nerve CLASS MEN AND WOMEN When production moved outback(a) the home, men who became owners ormanagers of factories gained status. Industrial work kept the economymoving, and it was apprized more than the domestic chores traditionallycarried out by women. Mens wages supported the families, since theyusually were the ones who made their comfortable life stylespossible.The work ethic of the middl e class infiltrated leisure timeas well. many were intent on self-improvement, reading books orattending lectures on business or culture. Many factory owners andmanagers stressed the importance of church attention for all, hopingthat factory workers could be persuaded to adopt materialistic determineof respectability. Middle class women generally did not work outside of the home,partly because men came to see stay-at-home wives as a sign oftheir success. What followed was a cult of domesticity that reassert removing women from the work place.Instead, they filledtheir lives with the care of children and the operation of theirhomes. Since most middle-class women had servants, they worn out(p) timesupervising them, but they alike had to do less household choresthemselves. Historians discord in their answers to the fountainhead of whether ornot gender disparity grew because of industrialization. Gender roleswere generally fixed in agricultural societies, and if the lives ofwor king class people in industrial societies are examined, it isdifficult to see that any significant changes in the gender gap tookplace at all.However, middle class gender roles provide the realbasis for the argument. On the one hand, some argue that women wereforced out of many areas of meaning(prenominal) work, isolated in their homesto obsess about issues of marginal importance. On the farm, theirwork was womens work, but they were an full part of thecentral enterprise of their time agriculture. Their work in raisingchildren was full of life to the economy, but industrialization renderedchildren superfluous as well, whose only role was to grow up safelyenough to fill their expectant gender- think duties.On the other hand,the cult of domesticity included a sort of idolizing of women thatmade them answerable for moral value and standards. Women were seenas stable and pure, the vision of what kept their men de selectd to thetasks of running the economy. Women as standard-setters , then, becamethe important force in shaping children to value respectability, leadmoral lives, and be answerable for their own behaviors. Withoutwomen filling this important role, the entire social structure thatsupported industrialized power would collapse. And who could wish formore power than that?NEW semipolitical IDEAS ANDMOVEMENTS In 1750 only England and the Netherlands had constitutive(a) monarch butterflyies, governments that limited the powers of the king or patternr. altogether the other kingdoms of Europe, as well as the Muslim conglomerates andChina, ripe absolutism. Absolutist rulers benefited from thetendency for governments to centralize between 1450 and 1750 becauseit extended the power they had over their subjects. Most of therulers reinforced their powers by claiming special authority for thesupernatural, whether it be the mandate of promised land as practise inChina, or comprehend right as European kings tell.Between 1750 and1914, compulsory rulers almost everyplace lost power, and the rule oflaw became a much more important political principle. One of the most important political concepts to vacate from the erawas the nation-state, a union often characterized by a prevalentlanguage, shared historical experiences and institutions, and similarcultural traditions, including worship at both the elect and ordinarylevels. As a result, political loyalties were no longer so determinedby ones attitudes toward a particular king or formal but by a moreabstract concomitant to a nation. FORCES FOR semipolitical CHANGE As the Industrial Revolution began in England, the economicchanges were attended by demands for political changes that dole outto many other areas of the world by the end of the 19th century. twainimportant forces behind the change were The influence of the knowledge The 1700s are sometimes referred to as the eld of prudence, because philosophical and political ideas were begun to seriously question the assum ptions of unconditional governments.The heaven began in Europe, and was a part of the changes associated with the conversion, the scientific Revolution, and the Protestant Reformation, all taking place between 1450 and 1750. The reason invited people to use their reason using the same human-centered approach of Renaissance times. multitude can figure things out, and they can come up with better governments and societies. In the 1600s John Locke wrote that a rulers authority is based on the will of the people. He as well as spoke of a social ingest that gave subjects the right to demoralise the ruler if he ruled great(p)ly. cut philosophes, such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau spread the new ideas to France, where they began katzenjammer in a land that epitomized absolutism. New wealth of the bourgeoisie Ongoing commercialization of the economy meant that the middle class grew in size and wealth, but not necessarily in political power. These self-made men question ed the idea that aristocrats only if should hold the highest political offices. Most could read and write, and found attainment doctrine appeal in its oppugn of absolute power. They want political power to match the economic power that they had gained.REVOLUTIONS A confederacy of economic, intellectual, and social changesstarted a loop of revolutions in the late 1700s that continued intothe low gearborn half(prenominal) of the 19th century. The started in North America andFrance, and spread into other parts of Europe and to LatinAmerica. THE American REVOLUTION Ironically, the offset revolution inspired by the new political theme that originated in England began in the North Americancolonies and was tell at England. It began when Americancolonists resisted Britains travail to impose new taxes and tradecontrols on the colonies after the french and Indian War ended in1763.Many besides resented Britains commences to control the movementwest. Taxation without representat ion turned British politicaltheory on its ear, but it became a major theme as the riotspread from Massachusetts end-to-end the rest of the colonies. compound attracters set up a new government and issued the promulgationof Independence in 1776. The British sent forces to put the rebelliondown, but the fighting continued for several(prenominal) years until the newcreated United States eventually won. The United States Constitutionthat followed was based on heaven principles, with threebranches of government that check and balance one another.Althoughinitially only a few had the right to vote and slavery was notabolished, the government became a model for revolutions to come. THE french REVOLUTION A very different situation existed in France. No establishednobility existed in the United States, so when independence wasachieved, the new nation had no old social and political structure tothrow off. In contrast, the Revolution in France was a civil war, arising against the Ancien Regime, or the old kingdom that had risenover centuries.The king, of course, had absolute power, but thenobility and clergy had many privileges that no one else had. Socialclasses were divided into three estates first was the clergy, secondthe nobility, and the ternary the three estates was everyone else. On the eve ofthe Revolution in 1789, about 97% of the population of France wasthrown into the Third Estate, although they held only about 5% of theland. They also paid nose candy% of the taxes. Part of the business was that the growing class of the bourgeoisiehad no political privileges.They read sagacity philosophes,they saw what happened in the American Revolution, and they resented pay backing all the taxes. Many saw the old political and social structureas out of date and the nobles as silly and vain, despicable of theprivileges they had. The cut Revolution began with big businessman Louis xvi called theEstates-General, or the old parliamentary structure, together for thefirst time in 160 years. He did so only because the country was infinancial crisis brought on by too many wars for power and anextravagant court life at Versailles Palace.Many problems convergedto create the Revolution the nobles refusal to pay taxes,bourgeoisie resentment of the king, Louis Vics incompetence, and aseries of bad harvests for the peasants. The bourgeoisie seizedcontrol of the proceedings and declared the insane asylum of the NationalAssembly, a legislative body that still exists in France today. Theywrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, modeledafter the American Declaration of Independence, and they set about towrite a Constitution for France.The years after the revolution began were turbulent ones that sawthe king beheaded and the government interpreted over by the Jacobins, aradical base that want equivalence through carrying into action those thatdisagreed with the government. The Reign of bane lasted for abouttwo years, with thousa nds of people guillotined and thousands morefleeing the country. The Jacobin leading themselves were eventuallyguillotined the country teetered for several years in disarray, andfinally was swept up by cat sleep Bonaparte as he claimed cut gloryin battle. Democracy did not come easy in France. conservativist REACTION TOREVOLUTION forty winks Bonaparte, of minor nobility from the island of Corsica,rose through the ranks of the French war machine during a time of topsy-turvydom. He seized the French Government at a time when no one else couldcontrol it. He promised stability and conquest, and by 1812 theFrench Empire dominated Europe to the borders of Russia. His invasionof Russia was unsuccessful, done in by parky winters, long supplylines, and tsar Alexander Its throw a fit and retreat method that leftFrench armies without food. Finally, an league of Europeancountries led by Britain get the better of nap in 1815 at Waterloo inmodern day Belgium.Although forty winks was discomfited and exiled, othercountries were horrified by what had happened in France arevolution, the beheading of a king, a terrorizing egalitariangovernment, and finally a demagogue who attacked all of Europe. To buttoned-up Europe, France was a problem that had to be containedbefore their ideas and actions spread to the rest of thecontinent. The associate that had disappointed Napoleon met at capital of Austria in 1815 toreach a peace resolving that would make further revolutionsimpossible. The Congress of capital of Austria was controlled by therepresentatives of three nations Britain, Austria, and Russia.Eachcountry precious something different. The British cherished to supplant theFrench war machine, Russia wanted to establish an alliance based onChristianity, and Austria wanted a return to absolutism. They reachedan agreement based on restoring the balance of power in Europe, orthe principle that no one country should ever dominate the others. Rather, the power should b e balanced among all the major countries. France actually came out quite an well in the proceedings, due in largepart to the talents of their representative, Tallyrand.However, theCongress restricted France with these major decisions Monarchies including the monarchy in France were restored in countries that Napoleon had conquered France was annulate with strong countries by its borders to keep its troops in check. The plan of Europe was formed, an organization of European states meant to respect the balance of power. THE interpenetrate OF REVOLUTION AND NEW POLITICALIDEAS No takings how the Congress of capital of Austria tried to stem the tide ofrevolution, it did not work in the long run.France was to wobbleback and forth between monarchy and republican government for thirtymore years, and then was ruled by Napoleon trine (Bonapartes nephew)until 1871, when finally a parliamentary government emerged. Andother countries in Europe, as well as colonies in Latin America, h adheard the shot heard round the world, and the true impact of therevolutionary political ideas began to be felt. REVOLUTIONS IN LATIN AMERICA From North America and France, revolutionary exuberance spreadthroughout the Caribbean and Spanish and Portuguese America.Incontrast to the attractions of the War for Independence for the UnitedStates, most of the early revolutions in Latin America began withsubordinated Amerindians and blacks. Even before the FrenchRevolution, Andean Indians, led by Tupac Amaru, hem in the ancientcapital of Cuzco and nearly conquered the Spanish armament. The Creoleelite responded by break the ties to Spain and Portugal, butestablishing governments under their control. Freedom, then, wasinterpreted to mean liberty for the upper-class classes. Only inthe French colony of saint Domingue (Haiti) did slaves carry out asuccessful insurrection.The rebellion in 1791 led to several years of civil war in Haiti,even though French abolished slavery in 1793. When Napoleon came topower, he sent an army to tame the forces led by ToussaintLOuverture, a former slave. However, Napoleons army was decimatedby guerrilla fighters and discolour fever, and even though Toussaintdied in a French jail, Haiti declared its independence in 1804. Other revolutions in Latin America were led by political andsocial elites, although some of them had important populistelements. brazil nut Portugals purple family fled to Brazil when Napoleons troops stormed the Iberian Peninsula.The presence of the royal family dampened revolutionary fervor, especially since the king instituted reforms in administration, agriculture, and manufacturing. He also established schools, hospitals, and a library. The king returned to Portugal in 1821, after Napoleons scourge was over, leaving Brazil in the custody of his son Pedro. infra pressure from Brazilian elites, Pedro declared Brazils independence, and he signed a charter establishing a constitutional monarchy that lasted until the late 19th century when Pedro II was overthrown by republicans. Mexico pay back Miguel Hidalgo led Mexicos rebellion that eventually led to independence in 1821. He was a Catholic priest who sympathized with the toast of the Amerindian peasants and was punish for pencil lead a rebellion against the colonial government. The Creole elite then took up the drive for independence that was won under the leadership of Agustin de Iturbide, a ultraconservative soldiers commander. However, Father Hidalgos cause greatly influenced Mexicos political atmosphere, as his populist ideas were taken up by others who led the people in revolt against the Creoles.Two famous populist leaders were Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, who like Father Hidalgo were executed by the government. Mexico was not to work out this tension between elite and peasants until well into the twentieth century. Spanish randomness America Colonial elite landholders, merchants, and armed forces also led Spanish colonies in southwesterly America in rebellion against Spain. The term junta came to be used for these local anaesthetic governments who wanted to overthrow colonial powers. Two junta centers in southwesterly America were 1. Caracas, Venezuela At first, laborers and slaves did not support this Creole-led junta.However, they were convinced(p) to join the independence movement by Simon de Bolivar, a attractive military leader with a vision of forging grannie Columbia, an independent, giant empire in the Yankee part of sulphur America. He defeated the Spanish, but did not achieve his dream of empire. Instead, regional differences caused the newly independent lands to split into several countries. 2. Buenos Aires, Argentina Another attractive military leaders Jose de San Martin led armies for independence from the southern part of the continent.His combined Chilean/Argentine forces joined with Bolivar in Peru, where they helped the northern areas to defeat the Spanis h. Martins areas, like those led by Bolivar, also split along regional differences. All in all, constitutional experiments in North America were moresuccessful than those in South America. Though South Americans gainedindependence from colonial governments during the 19th century, theirgovernments remained peremptory and no effective legislative assemblys werecreated to share the power with political leaders. Why thisdifference? comparative CONSTITUTIONAL EXPERIMENTS matrimony AMERICA AND randomness AMERICA conglutination AMERICA southward AMERICA pose country had parliamentary government, so colonial governments had a amaze country governed by absolute monarch colonial constitutional model governments had authoritarian model Colonies had previous experience with hot politics had their wn Colonies had no experience with popular politics governments that often operated independently from British control colonial governments led by authoritarian Creoles armed forces leaders were popular and sometimes became Presidents (Washington, Had fuss subduing the power of military leaders Jackson), but they did not try to take over the government as military set in place the tradition of military juntas taking leaders constitutional principle that military would be subordinate to theover governments government American Revolution occurred in the 1770s vulnerable new nation emerged atLatin American Revolutions occurred during the early an economically advantageous time, when the world economy was expanding 1800s, a time when the world economy was contracting, a less advantageous time for new nations The differences in political backgrounds of the two continents ledto some very different consequences. For the United States (andeventually Canada), it meant that relatively democratic governmentsleft entrepreneurs open to the Industrial Revolution, which, afterall, started in their mother country. For Latin America, it meantthat their governments wer e less supporting and/or more removed fromthe economic transformations of the Industrial Revolutions, andstable democratic governments and economic prosperity would be a longtime in coming. IDEOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OFREVOLUTIONSThe Enlightenment philosophy that inspired revolutions in theUnited States, France, and Latin America brought about lastingchanges in western political ideology, with some people reactingagainst the funny house that revolutions brought, and others inspired bythe set of democracy, liberty, par, and justice. Threecontrasting ideologies may be seen by the early 1800s Conservatism People who supported this philosophy at first advocated return to absolute monarchy, but came to accept constitutional monarchy by the mid-1800s. Generally, conservatives disap turn up of the revolutions of the era, particularly the French Revolution with all the violence and chaos that it brought. Liberalism Liberals supported a republican democracy, or a government with an el ected legislature who represented the people in political decision-making.These representatives were generally from the elite, but were selected (usually by vote) from a popular base of citizens. Emphasis was generally on liberty or freedom from oppression, rather than on equality. Radicalism Radicals advocated drastic changes in government and show equality more than liberty. Their philosophies varied, but they were most concerned with limiting the gap between elites and the general population. The Jacobins during the French Revolution, and Marxism that appeared in the mid 19th century were variations of this ideological family. crystalize MOVEMENTS The political values supported by revolutions were embraced bysome who saw them as applying to all people, including women andformer slaves.Values of liberty, equality, and democracy hadprofound implications for change within societies that had alwaysaccepted hierarchical social classes and gender roles. Reformmovements germinate up as different people put different meter readings on what these new political and social valuesactually meant. Womens Rights Advocates of womens rights were particularly active in Britain,France, and North America. bloody shame Wollstonecraft, an English writer,was one of the first to argue that women possessed all the rightsthat Locke had granted to men, including pedagogics and datein political life. Many French women fabricated that they would begranted equal rights after the revolution. However, it did not bringthe right to vote or play major roles in public affairs.Since genderroles did not change in the immediate aftermath of revolution, socialreformers press for womens rights in North America and Europe. Americans like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony in theUnited States distinct to concentrate their efforts on suffrage, orthe right to vote. A resolution passed at Seneca Falls, New York, in1848, accent womens rights to suffrage, as well as to education,profe ssional occupations, and political office. Their movement didnot ask for popular support, however, until the 20th century, buttheir activism laid a foundation for big social changelater. The Limits of the abolitionist MovementAlthough slavery was abolished in Europe and North America by thelate 19th century, blacks did not realize equality within the timeperiod. Although former slaves were guaranteed the right to vote inthe late 1860s in the United States, they were efficaciously barredfrom political participation by state and local economy calledJim Crow laws. Blacks all over the Americas tended to have the leastdesirable jobs, limited educational opportunities, and lower socialstatus than whites. buttoned-up Reactions to Reform During the late 1800s two systems of related political mindemerged among conservatives to unloosen inequalities Scientific racism This idea system became popular among conservative thinkers in industrialized societies.It used scientific reasoning a nd read to prove its precede that blacks are physiologically and mentally insufficient to whites. The theory generally constructed three main races in the world Caucasian, Mongoloid, and Negroid and built its arguments that basic differences existed among them that made Negroids inherently small to Caucasians. Scientific racism, then, justify the inferior positions that blacks had in the society and the economy. Social Darwinism This philosophy justified not racial differences, but differences between the rich and the poor. It used Darwins theory of natural selection (living things that are better suitable to the environment survive, others dont) to absolve why some get rich and others remain poor.In the controversy for favored positions and bigger shares of wealth, the strong, intelligent, and motivated by nature defeat the weak, less intelligent, and the lazy. So, people who get to the top be it, as do the people who remain at the sink in Marxism Another reaction to the revolution in political thought wasMarxism, The father of socialism is generally declare to be KarlMarx, who first wrote about his interpretation of history and visionfor the forthcoming in The commie Manifesto in 1848. He saw capitalism or the free market as an economic system thatexploited workers and increased the gap between the rich and thepoor.He believed that conditions in capitalist countries wouldeventually become so bad that workers would join together in aRevolution of the undertaking (workers), and overcome thebourgeoisie, or owners of factories and other agency of production. Marx envisioned a new world after the revolution, one in which socialclass would mellow out because ownership of reclusive property would bebanned. accord to Marx, communism encourages equality andcooperation, and without property to encourage greed and strife,governments would be unnecessary. His theories took root in Europe,but never became the philosophy behind European governments, but iteventually took new forms in early 20th century Russia and China. NATIONALISMIn older forms of political organizations, the glue of politicalunity came from the ruler, whether it is a king, emperor, sultan, orcaliph. Political power generally was built on military might, and aruler controlled the land that he conquered as long as he controlledit. Power was often passed down within one family that based thelegitimacy of their rule on principles that held sway over theirpopulations, often some kind of special contact with the spiritualworld. The era 1750 to 1914 saw the creation of a new type ofpolitical organization the nation that survived even if therulers failed. Whereas nations political boundaries were still oftendecided by military victory, the political entity was much broaderthan control by one person or family.Nations were built onnationalism the feeling of identicalness within a common aggroup ofpeople. Of course, these feelings were not new in the history of the world. However, the force of common identity became a basic buildingblock for nations, political forms that still dominate world politicstoday. nationalism could be based on common geographical locations,language, religion, or customs, but it is much more abstruse thanthat. The main idea is that people see themselves as Americans orItalians or Japanese, despite the fact that significant culturalvariations may exist within the nation. Napoleon contributed a great deal to the development of strongnationalism in 19th century Europe.His conquests were done in thename of France, even though the French monarchy had been deposed. The more he conquered, the more experience people had in being French. He also stimulated up feelings of nationalism within a people that heconquered Germans that could not abide being taken over by theFrench. In Napoleons day Germany did not exist as a country yet, butpeople still thought of themselves as being German. Instead Germanslived in a political enti ty known as The saintly popish Empire. However, the nationalism that Napoleon invoked became the basis forfurther revolutions, in which people around the world sought todetermine their own sovereignty, a principle that Woodrow Wilsoncalled self-determination. cram OF WESTERN DOMINANCEA combination of economic and political transformations in Europethat began in the 1450 to 1750 era converged between 1750 and 1914 toallow the west (including the United States and Australia) todominate the rest of the world. From China to the Muslim states toAfrica, virtually all other parts of the world became the have notsto the wests haves. With political and economic dominance camecontrol in cultural and artistic areas as well. NEW European NATIONS A major political development inspired by growing nationalism wasthe consolidation of small states into two important new nations Italy Before the second half of the 19th century, Italy was a collection of city-states that were only loosely confed erative with one another. A unification movement was begun in the north by Camillo di Cavour, and in the north by Giuseppe Garibaldi.As states unified one by one, the two leaders joined, and Italy became a unified nation under King Vittore Emmanuele II. The movement was a successful attempt to escape the historical domination of the peninsula by Spain in the south and Austria in the north. Germany The German Confederation was created by the Congress of capital of Austria in 1815, but it had been controlled by the Austrian and Prussian Empires. In 1848 major rebellions bust out within the confederation, inspired by liberals who envisioned a German nation ruled by parliamentary government. The revolutions failed, and many liberals fled the country, but they proved to be an excuse for the Prussian army to invade other parts of the Confederation.The Prussian military leader was Otto von von Bismarck, who subjugated the rebels and declared the beginning of the German Empire. The gove rnment was a constitutional monarchy, with Kaiser Wilhelm I ruling, but for a number of years, Bismarck had control. He raise three wars &endash with Denmark, Austria, and France &endash and appealed to German nationalism to create a strong new nation in the heart of Europe. He marked it the 2nd Reich or ruling era (the 1st was the Holy Roman Empire and the 3rd was set up by Adolph Hitler in the 20th century). These new nations altered the balance of power in Europe, causingestablished nations like Britain and France concern that their ownpower was in danger.Nationalism, then, was spurred on by a renewalof